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Syria
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This article is about the modern nation of Syria. For other uses, see Syria (disambiguation).
الجمهورية العربية السورية
Al-Jumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah as-Sūriyyah
Syrian Arab Republic
Flag of Syria Coat of arms of Syria
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Homat el Diyar
"Guardians of the Homeland"
Location of Syria
Capital
(and largest city) Damascus
33°30′N 36°18′E
Official languages Arabic
Government Presidential republic
- President Bashar al-Assad
- Prime Minister Muhammad Naji Etri
Independence from France
- Declared (1) September 19361
- Declared (2) January 1, 1944
- Recognized April 17, 1946
Area
- Total 183,885 km² (88th)
71,479 sq mi
- Water (%) 0.06
Population
- July 2005 estimate 19,043,000 (55th)
- Density 103/km² (96th)
267/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2005 estimate
- Total $71.74 billion (65th)
- Per capita $5,348 (101st)
HDI (2004) 0.716 (medium) (107th)
Currency Syrian pound (SYP)
Time zone EET (UTC+2)
- Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)
Internet TLD .sy
Calling code +963
1 The Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936), not ratified by France.
Syria (Arabic: سوريا or سورية ), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية ), is a country in the Middle East, bordering Lebanon to the west, Israel to the southwest, Jordan to the south, Iraq to the east, and Turkey to the north. The modern state of Syria attained independence from the French mandate of Syria in 1946, but can trace its historical roots to the fourth millennium BC; its capital city, Damascus, was the seat of the Umayyad Empire and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Empire.
Syria has a population of 19 million, of whom the majority are Arabic-speaking Sunni Muslims, as well as 16% other Muslim groups, including the Alawi, Shi'a, and Druze, and 10% Christian. Since 1963 the country has been governed by the Baath Party; the head of state since 1970 has been a member of the Assad family. Syria's current President is Bashar al-Assad, son of Hafez al-Assad, who held office from 1970 until his death in 2000.
Historically, Syria has often been taken to include the territories of Lebanon, Israel and the Palestinian Territories, and parts of Jordan, but excluding the Jazira region in the north-east of the modern Syrian state. In this historic sense, the region is also known as Greater Syria or by the Arabic name Bilad al-Sham (بلاد الشام ). Since the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel has controlled the disputed Golan Heights to the southwest of the country; a dispute with Turkey over the Hatay Province has subsided.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
o 2.1 Ancient Syria
o 2.2 Islamic Era
o 2.3 French mandate
o 2.4 Independence
+ 2.4.1 Syrian army’s role in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War
o 2.5 Military coups
+ 2.5.1 Years of influence and presidency of Shishakli
o 2.6 Civilian rule: 1954–1958
o 2.7 United Arab Republic
o 2.8 Post- union Regime
o 2.9 Baath takeover
o 2.10 1970–2000
+ 2.10.1 Consolidation of power
+ 2.10.2 Yom Kippur War
+ 2.10.3 Involvement in Lebanon
+ 2.10.4 Opposition and repression
+ 2.10.5 Relations with Iran
+ 2.10.6 Gulf War
+ 2.10.7 Death and succession of Hafez al-Assad
o 2.11 2000–2004
o 2.12 Events since 2004
* 3 Administrative divisions
o 3.1 Major cities
o 3.2 Minor cities
o 3.3 Towns
o 3.4 Villages
* 4 Politics
o 4.1 Government
o 4.2 Human rights
* 5 Geography
* 6 Economy
* 7 Demographics
o 7.1 Ethnic groups
o 7.2 Religion
o 7.3 Languages
* 8 Culture
o 8.1 Holidays
o 8.2 Fairs and festivals
* 9 Miscellaneous topics
* 10 References and footnotes
* 11 External links
[edit] Etymology
The name Syria comes from the ancient Greek name for the former colonial territories of Assyria such as Canaan and Aram. At the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea between Egypt and Arabia to the south and Cilicia to the north, stretching inland to include Mesopotamia, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including from west to east Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene, "formerly known as Assyria" (N.H. 5.66). By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each other): Judaea (or "Judea" and later renamed Palestina in AD 135—the region corresponding to the modern states of Israel and Jordan and the Palestinian territories) in the extreme southwest, Phoenicia corresponding to Lebanon, with Damascena to the inland side of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") south of the Eleutheris river, and Mesopotamia.
[edit] History
The following text needs to be harmonized with text in the article History of Syria.
(See e.g. Wikipedia:Summary style.)
This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone and/or spelling.
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Map of Syria
Map of Syria
Main article: History of Syria
[edit] Ancient Syria
Syrian civilization dates back to at least the fourth millennium BC. Many sites in Syria evoke the beginnings of recorded human history.
Archaeologists have demonstrated that Syria was the centre of one of the most ancient civilizations on Earth. Around the excavated city of Ebla in north-eastern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia from 2500 to 2400 BC. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be the oldest recorded Semitic language. At Ebla (Tel Merdikh), a royal palace was discovered containing one of the largest and most comprehensive archives of the ancient world. Ebla's archive consists of more than 17,000 clay tablets dealing with matters of industry, diplomacy, trade, art and agriculture. Ebla became world-famous for two industries: the manufacture of finely carved wood, inlaid with ivory and mother of pearls; and of silk cloth of gold. Today these industries still prosper, with Syrian brocade and mosaics fashioned according to the artisan tradition of ancient Ebla.
Clay tablet from Ebla's archive.
Clay tablet from Ebla's archive.
Other notable cities excavated include Mari, Ugarit and Dura Europos. At Mari (Tel Hariri) numerous palaces, temples and murals were found that reflect advanced cultural and commercial activity. The kingdom of Ugarit (Ras Shamra) offered humankind its first alphabet.
Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Hebrews, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Armenians, Romans, Nabataeans, Byzantines, Arabs, and, in part, Crusaders before finally coming under the control of the Ottoman Turks. Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; according to the Bible, Paul was converted on the Road to Damascus and joined the first organized Christian Church in Antioch in ancient Syria (now in Turkey), from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.
[edit] Islamic Era
Damascus, a city that has been inhabited as early as 3,000 BC, is known to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It came under Muslim rule in AD 636. Immediately thereafter, the city's power and prestige reached its peak, and it became the capital of the Umayyad Empire, which extended from Spain to the borders of Central Asia from AD 661 to AD 750. Syria acted as cultural hub that took in influences from many sources and sent them out to other parts of the empire and Damascus achieved a glory unrivalled among cities of the eighth century. The Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in AD 750, and the seat of the Abbasid caliphate was established at Baghdad, Iraq.
Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mameluke Empire around 1260. It was largely destroyed in 1400 by Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, who removed many of its craftsmen to Samarkand. Rebuilt, it continued to serve as a capital until 1516. In 1517, it fell under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans remained for the next four hundred years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840.
[edit] French mandate
The following text needs to be harmonized with text in the article French Mandate of Syria.
(See e.g. Wikipedia:Summary style.)
This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone and/or spelling.
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The National Bloc signing the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence in Paris in 1936. From left to right: Saadallah al-Jabiri, Jamil Mardam Bey, Hashim al-Atassi (signing), and French Prime Minister Léon Blum.
The National Bloc signing the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence in Paris in 1936. From left to right: Saadallah al-Jabiri, Jamil Mardam Bey, Hashim al-Atassi (signing), and French Prime Minister Léon Blum.
The Arabs participated in revolt of Hussein bin Ali against the Ottomans, and in alliance with the British, captured Damascus and other Syrian cities. Faysal, son of Hussein, grand sheriff of Mecca, formed a national government in 1918 in Damascus, which controlled some areas from what was known as greater Syria, which consisted of present day: Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel. It controlled all territories except the Syrian coast including Lebanon, and some southern and coastal parts of Palestine that had been declared a French and British controlled areas, and some of them were free territories. Majlis al–Shoura (Advisory counsel) was formed to represent the legislative branch of the government. Faysal appointed Rida al-Rikabi as the first Prime Minister of modern Syria, Rikabi formed the first cabinet of modern Syria. The Istiqlal party (party of independence) was formed in February 6, 1919 as the successor of Jam'iyat al-Arabiyah al-Fatat, as first post-Ottoman Syrian party, and with the leadership of Shukri al-Quwatli, Saadalla al-Jabiri, and Riad al-Sulh. And the Azm party was formed as the successor of the Azm movement. General elections were held in 1919, and the first Parliament was formed under the name of Syrian national congress, with Hashim al-Atassi as the speaker of parliament. Prince Zayed became prime minister in January until March when Rida al-Rikabi was reappointed as Prime Minister. In March, 8,1920 the Syrian national congress elected and crowned prince Faysal as the king of Syria. Faysal appointed Hashim al-Atassi as Prime Minister in May, and asked him to appoint the cabinet. Faysal declared Syria a free and Independent kingdom, also appointed a 20 members committee headed by Atassi from the Congress to draw up a constitution. The constitution adapted a new flag, declared the federal and the Parliamentary system, and declared the Syrian kingdom; which consists of 4 autonomous territories; Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. Each territory has high autonomy with a governor general appointed by the monarch, a chamber of deputies, and a local government. According to the constitution, the monarch and Prime Minister represented the executive branch, and the legislative branch represented by the Syrian national congress (Parliament) that consisted of two houses; elected chamber of deputies, and senate; where members are half elected, and half appointed by the monarch. The congress started to reconstruct the state; it reopened schools, universities, and other educational institutions, and built new ones including the Syrian university in Damascus (1923), and the Arab Academy (1919) also in Damascus. It declared Arabic the official language, and translated school texts into Arabic.
Under the terms of the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France, France was granted a mandate over Syria by the League of Nations.
In 1920, the French army attacked Damascus and crushed the Syrian resistance led by Minster of war in Atassi’s government Yusuf al-Azmeh in the Battle of Maysalun. The Syrian national congress and the kingdom were dissolved, Faysal fled to Palestine, and then to Italy. France governed Syria directly by the high commissioner.
In late 1921 and 1922 French authorities divided Syria into six states: Aleppo, Damascus, Jabal el Druze, the Alawite State, Lebanon, and Sanjak Iskenderoun (state of Alexandretta). Autonomy status was granted in Jabal al Druze, Lebanon, and Sanjak Iskenderoun. By the Franco-Turkish agreement of Ankara (1921) France decided to give the state of Alexandretta a special administration, were it was governed under mandate authorities, the autonomous government, and the government of Turkey, and separation from Syria in 1939 was the second Franco-Turkish action toward this state.
Many nationalists revolted against the French authorities including: Saleh al-Ali in the Alawi state (1919-1921), Ibrahim Hanano in Aleppo (1920-1921), Ramadan Shlash in eastern Syria (1919 – 1921), Sultan Pasha al-Atrash in Jabal Druze (1925 – 1926). Another revolts including: Lebanese revolt, Damascus and its rural areas (1925 – 1927) lead by Damascus notables, Hama and its rural areas (1919 – 1929). However, The French quelled all the revolutions in all parts of Syria. The Druze revolt and Damascus revolt were known as the Great Syrian revolution because they were the best organized revolts in Syria. Damascus revolutionaries took and captured Damascus in 1925 except the Meza area and Damascus citadel, were the French army centered and heavily bombed the city by artillery and aircraft. The remaining revolutionaries in the city surrendered to the French and bombing was stopped. Many parts of the city were destroyed as a result of the bombing which lasted 48 hours. The last battles of Damascus’s rural area in 1927 marked the end of the Syrian great revolution in defeat. As a result of this number of revolts against them, French authorities amended their plans in Syria; Aleppo and Damascus states merged to form The State of Syria, but the Alawite state and Jabal Druze kept separated. The state of Lebanon officially separated from Syria in 1926 as the Lebanese republic under French mandate. A Number of political parties were formed including People’s party (1925) and the Communist party of Syria and Lebanon (1924, renamed as the Syrian Communist Party in 1944). The Istiqlal party, and other nationalist groups and parties merged to form a coalition national alliance called the National Bloc, headed by Hashim al-Atassi, which called for an independent Syria, and said that independence should be granted by diplomatic talks with France rather than armed resistance. A 67-seated constituent assembly was formed in 1928 to draw up Syria’s first republican constitution, and the national bloc leader, Hashim al-Atassi became speaker of the constituent assembly. The assembly approved a constitution in 1930, and the French high commissioner refused articles that gave the Syrian government power more than the French authorities. The high commissioner adapted the “116 article”, which gave the French authorities a huge power. At the same time the constitutions of Jabal el Druze, the Alawite state, and Alexanderetta where adapted. In 1932 the Syrian republic was declared, and a Parliament was formed under the name of the chamber of deputies, with Subhi Barrakat as the speaker of the Parliament. Muhammad Abid became the president of Syria, and appointed the pro- French Politician Haqqi al-Azm as Prime Minister. Abid appointed a new Prime Minister in 1934, Taj al-Din al-Hasani, who named a pro- French cabinet. Members of the national bloc and Many Syrian nationalists stood against Abid’s regime, and they called for a 60 days strike in February 1936. France, in defeat called the national bloc leaders in March, including Hashim al-Atassi, to negotiate a treaty with the French leaders in Paris to provide a gradual and substantial Syrian independence. They signed what is known as the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence in September, and came back to Syria in the same month. The treaty provided the unity of Syria: Jabal al- Druze and the Alawi state were joined with the Syrian republic. It also provided more authorities to President and Parliament. And the treaty gives Syria gradual independence over 25 years, when Syria would get full independence. During the previous months, 'Ata Bay al-Ayyubi, replaced Haqqi al- Azm as Prime Minister; declared the end of 60 days strike, dissolved al- Hassani pro French cabinet, and appointed a coalition counsel of ministers (cabinet) Including pro French movements and national movements. A new parliament was elected in 1936, and Hashim al-Atassi was elected a president. France started to develop Syria by building schools, roads, and hospitals. In 1939 the French government annulled and refused the Franco-Syrian treaty of independence. Jabal al Druze and the Alawi state were separated from Syria again. Presidential and Parliamentary authorities were abolished. Hashim al-Atassi resigned from presidency. France ceded to turkey the state of Alexandretta (sanjak Iskenderoun) in 1939.
The French dissolved Parliament in 1939 due to the outbreak of World War II. As the chairman of the high commissioners, Bahij al-Khatib headed the state and government.
After the surrender of France to Germany in 1940, Syria came under the control of the Vichy government. British and Free French forces invaded Syria in 1941. Later in the same year Free French authorities asked Khatib to resign. General Charles de Gaulle visited Syria in October 1941, and asked Hashim al-Atassi to resume his duty as president, but Atassi refused to do so. De Gaulle also asked Taj al-din al-Hassani to rule as president without Parliament until elections we be held after the end of World War II, al-Hassani accepted this job. In January, 17, 1943 Taj al-din al-Hassani died in office, a new government was formed in the same year, and a new constitution was promulgated. With the elections in 1943, a new Parliament was formed. Shukri al-Quwatli, a Syrian nationalist, one of the leaders of the 1925 to 1927 uprising against the French, and a member of the national bloc, was elected a president of the Syrian republic. The 1943 constitution declared Syrian republic the official name, declared the Parliamentary system, and provided the freedom of faith and beliefs. The constitution also provided a 120 seated chamber of deputies, which represented the Parliamentary and legislative branch. It also provided a president who serves a 5 year term, and cannot be reelected until he serves the whole term, who represents the executive branch along with Prime Minister and cabinet.
In 1944 French and Syrian leaders signed an independence treaty and Jabal Druze and the Alwai state were back to the Syrian republic, however, Free French troops surrounded Damascus in 1945, bombed it, just after twenty years from the first raid. As a result, Parliament building and Damascus citadel were destroyed, also many civilian neighborhoods were destroyed with more than 2000 civilian died.
In 1946 the independence treaty of 1944 was recognized, Free French troops and British troops left Syria, with the last leaving on April 15, 1946. Independence was declared on April 17, making this day a national holiday which is commemorated each year as the Jalaa Day (Independence Day).
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the modern nation of Syria. For other uses, see Syria (disambiguation).
الجمهورية العربية السورية
Al-Jumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah as-Sūriyyah
Syrian Arab Republic
Flag of Syria Coat of arms of Syria
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Homat el Diyar
"Guardians of the Homeland"
Location of Syria
Capital
(and largest city) Damascus
33°30′N 36°18′E
Official languages Arabic
Government Presidential republic
- President Bashar al-Assad
- Prime Minister Muhammad Naji Etri
Independence from France
- Declared (1) September 19361
- Declared (2) January 1, 1944
- Recognized April 17, 1946
Area
- Total 183,885 km² (88th)
71,479 sq mi
- Water (%) 0.06
Population
- July 2005 estimate 19,043,000 (55th)
- Density 103/km² (96th)
267/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2005 estimate
- Total $71.74 billion (65th)
- Per capita $5,348 (101st)
HDI (2004) 0.716 (medium) (107th)
Currency Syrian pound (SYP)
Time zone EET (UTC+2)
- Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)
Internet TLD .sy
Calling code +963
1 The Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936), not ratified by France.
Syria (Arabic: سوريا or سورية ), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية ), is a country in the Middle East, bordering Lebanon to the west, Israel to the southwest, Jordan to the south, Iraq to the east, and Turkey to the north. The modern state of Syria attained independence from the French mandate of Syria in 1946, but can trace its historical roots to the fourth millennium BC; its capital city, Damascus, was the seat of the Umayyad Empire and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Empire.
Syria has a population of 19 million, of whom the majority are Arabic-speaking Sunni Muslims, as well as 16% other Muslim groups, including the Alawi, Shi'a, and Druze, and 10% Christian. Since 1963 the country has been governed by the Baath Party; the head of state since 1970 has been a member of the Assad family. Syria's current President is Bashar al-Assad, son of Hafez al-Assad, who held office from 1970 until his death in 2000.
Historically, Syria has often been taken to include the territories of Lebanon, Israel and the Palestinian Territories, and parts of Jordan, but excluding the Jazira region in the north-east of the modern Syrian state. In this historic sense, the region is also known as Greater Syria or by the Arabic name Bilad al-Sham (بلاد الشام ). Since the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel has controlled the disputed Golan Heights to the southwest of the country; a dispute with Turkey over the Hatay Province has subsided.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
o 2.1 Ancient Syria
o 2.2 Islamic Era
o 2.3 French mandate
o 2.4 Independence
+ 2.4.1 Syrian army’s role in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War
o 2.5 Military coups
+ 2.5.1 Years of influence and presidency of Shishakli
o 2.6 Civilian rule: 1954–1958
o 2.7 United Arab Republic
o 2.8 Post- union Regime
o 2.9 Baath takeover
o 2.10 1970–2000
+ 2.10.1 Consolidation of power
+ 2.10.2 Yom Kippur War
+ 2.10.3 Involvement in Lebanon
+ 2.10.4 Opposition and repression
+ 2.10.5 Relations with Iran
+ 2.10.6 Gulf War
+ 2.10.7 Death and succession of Hafez al-Assad
o 2.11 2000–2004
o 2.12 Events since 2004
* 3 Administrative divisions
o 3.1 Major cities
o 3.2 Minor cities
o 3.3 Towns
o 3.4 Villages
* 4 Politics
o 4.1 Government
o 4.2 Human rights
* 5 Geography
* 6 Economy
* 7 Demographics
o 7.1 Ethnic groups
o 7.2 Religion
o 7.3 Languages
* 8 Culture
o 8.1 Holidays
o 8.2 Fairs and festivals
* 9 Miscellaneous topics
* 10 References and footnotes
* 11 External links
[edit] Etymology
The name Syria comes from the ancient Greek name for the former colonial territories of Assyria such as Canaan and Aram. At the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea between Egypt and Arabia to the south and Cilicia to the north, stretching inland to include Mesopotamia, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including from west to east Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene, "formerly known as Assyria" (N.H. 5.66). By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each other): Judaea (or "Judea" and later renamed Palestina in AD 135—the region corresponding to the modern states of Israel and Jordan and the Palestinian territories) in the extreme southwest, Phoenicia corresponding to Lebanon, with Damascena to the inland side of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") south of the Eleutheris river, and Mesopotamia.
[edit] History
The following text needs to be harmonized with text in the article History of Syria.
(See e.g. Wikipedia:Summary style.)
This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone and/or spelling.
You can help by editing it now. A guide is available, as is general editing help.
This article has been tagged since February 2007.
Map of Syria
Map of Syria
Main article: History of Syria
[edit] Ancient Syria
Syrian civilization dates back to at least the fourth millennium BC. Many sites in Syria evoke the beginnings of recorded human history.
Archaeologists have demonstrated that Syria was the centre of one of the most ancient civilizations on Earth. Around the excavated city of Ebla in north-eastern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia from 2500 to 2400 BC. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be the oldest recorded Semitic language. At Ebla (Tel Merdikh), a royal palace was discovered containing one of the largest and most comprehensive archives of the ancient world. Ebla's archive consists of more than 17,000 clay tablets dealing with matters of industry, diplomacy, trade, art and agriculture. Ebla became world-famous for two industries: the manufacture of finely carved wood, inlaid with ivory and mother of pearls; and of silk cloth of gold. Today these industries still prosper, with Syrian brocade and mosaics fashioned according to the artisan tradition of ancient Ebla.
Clay tablet from Ebla's archive.
Clay tablet from Ebla's archive.
Other notable cities excavated include Mari, Ugarit and Dura Europos. At Mari (Tel Hariri) numerous palaces, temples and murals were found that reflect advanced cultural and commercial activity. The kingdom of Ugarit (Ras Shamra) offered humankind its first alphabet.
Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Hebrews, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Armenians, Romans, Nabataeans, Byzantines, Arabs, and, in part, Crusaders before finally coming under the control of the Ottoman Turks. Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; according to the Bible, Paul was converted on the Road to Damascus and joined the first organized Christian Church in Antioch in ancient Syria (now in Turkey), from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.
[edit] Islamic Era
Damascus, a city that has been inhabited as early as 3,000 BC, is known to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It came under Muslim rule in AD 636. Immediately thereafter, the city's power and prestige reached its peak, and it became the capital of the Umayyad Empire, which extended from Spain to the borders of Central Asia from AD 661 to AD 750. Syria acted as cultural hub that took in influences from many sources and sent them out to other parts of the empire and Damascus achieved a glory unrivalled among cities of the eighth century. The Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in AD 750, and the seat of the Abbasid caliphate was established at Baghdad, Iraq.
Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mameluke Empire around 1260. It was largely destroyed in 1400 by Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, who removed many of its craftsmen to Samarkand. Rebuilt, it continued to serve as a capital until 1516. In 1517, it fell under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans remained for the next four hundred years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840.
[edit] French mandate
The following text needs to be harmonized with text in the article French Mandate of Syria.
(See e.g. Wikipedia:Summary style.)
This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone and/or spelling.
You can help by editing it now. A guide is available, as is general editing help.
This article has been tagged since February 2007.
The National Bloc signing the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence in Paris in 1936. From left to right: Saadallah al-Jabiri, Jamil Mardam Bey, Hashim al-Atassi (signing), and French Prime Minister Léon Blum.
The National Bloc signing the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence in Paris in 1936. From left to right: Saadallah al-Jabiri, Jamil Mardam Bey, Hashim al-Atassi (signing), and French Prime Minister Léon Blum.
The Arabs participated in revolt of Hussein bin Ali against the Ottomans, and in alliance with the British, captured Damascus and other Syrian cities. Faysal, son of Hussein, grand sheriff of Mecca, formed a national government in 1918 in Damascus, which controlled some areas from what was known as greater Syria, which consisted of present day: Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel. It controlled all territories except the Syrian coast including Lebanon, and some southern and coastal parts of Palestine that had been declared a French and British controlled areas, and some of them were free territories. Majlis al–Shoura (Advisory counsel) was formed to represent the legislative branch of the government. Faysal appointed Rida al-Rikabi as the first Prime Minister of modern Syria, Rikabi formed the first cabinet of modern Syria. The Istiqlal party (party of independence) was formed in February 6, 1919 as the successor of Jam'iyat al-Arabiyah al-Fatat, as first post-Ottoman Syrian party, and with the leadership of Shukri al-Quwatli, Saadalla al-Jabiri, and Riad al-Sulh. And the Azm party was formed as the successor of the Azm movement. General elections were held in 1919, and the first Parliament was formed under the name of Syrian national congress, with Hashim al-Atassi as the speaker of parliament. Prince Zayed became prime minister in January until March when Rida al-Rikabi was reappointed as Prime Minister. In March, 8,1920 the Syrian national congress elected and crowned prince Faysal as the king of Syria. Faysal appointed Hashim al-Atassi as Prime Minister in May, and asked him to appoint the cabinet. Faysal declared Syria a free and Independent kingdom, also appointed a 20 members committee headed by Atassi from the Congress to draw up a constitution. The constitution adapted a new flag, declared the federal and the Parliamentary system, and declared the Syrian kingdom; which consists of 4 autonomous territories; Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. Each territory has high autonomy with a governor general appointed by the monarch, a chamber of deputies, and a local government. According to the constitution, the monarch and Prime Minister represented the executive branch, and the legislative branch represented by the Syrian national congress (Parliament) that consisted of two houses; elected chamber of deputies, and senate; where members are half elected, and half appointed by the monarch. The congress started to reconstruct the state; it reopened schools, universities, and other educational institutions, and built new ones including the Syrian university in Damascus (1923), and the Arab Academy (1919) also in Damascus. It declared Arabic the official language, and translated school texts into Arabic.
Under the terms of the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France, France was granted a mandate over Syria by the League of Nations.
In 1920, the French army attacked Damascus and crushed the Syrian resistance led by Minster of war in Atassi’s government Yusuf al-Azmeh in the Battle of Maysalun. The Syrian national congress and the kingdom were dissolved, Faysal fled to Palestine, and then to Italy. France governed Syria directly by the high commissioner.
In late 1921 and 1922 French authorities divided Syria into six states: Aleppo, Damascus, Jabal el Druze, the Alawite State, Lebanon, and Sanjak Iskenderoun (state of Alexandretta). Autonomy status was granted in Jabal al Druze, Lebanon, and Sanjak Iskenderoun. By the Franco-Turkish agreement of Ankara (1921) France decided to give the state of Alexandretta a special administration, were it was governed under mandate authorities, the autonomous government, and the government of Turkey, and separation from Syria in 1939 was the second Franco-Turkish action toward this state.
Many nationalists revolted against the French authorities including: Saleh al-Ali in the Alawi state (1919-1921), Ibrahim Hanano in Aleppo (1920-1921), Ramadan Shlash in eastern Syria (1919 – 1921), Sultan Pasha al-Atrash in Jabal Druze (1925 – 1926). Another revolts including: Lebanese revolt, Damascus and its rural areas (1925 – 1927) lead by Damascus notables, Hama and its rural areas (1919 – 1929). However, The French quelled all the revolutions in all parts of Syria. The Druze revolt and Damascus revolt were known as the Great Syrian revolution because they were the best organized revolts in Syria. Damascus revolutionaries took and captured Damascus in 1925 except the Meza area and Damascus citadel, were the French army centered and heavily bombed the city by artillery and aircraft. The remaining revolutionaries in the city surrendered to the French and bombing was stopped. Many parts of the city were destroyed as a result of the bombing which lasted 48 hours. The last battles of Damascus’s rural area in 1927 marked the end of the Syrian great revolution in defeat. As a result of this number of revolts against them, French authorities amended their plans in Syria; Aleppo and Damascus states merged to form The State of Syria, but the Alawite state and Jabal Druze kept separated. The state of Lebanon officially separated from Syria in 1926 as the Lebanese republic under French mandate. A Number of political parties were formed including People’s party (1925) and the Communist party of Syria and Lebanon (1924, renamed as the Syrian Communist Party in 1944). The Istiqlal party, and other nationalist groups and parties merged to form a coalition national alliance called the National Bloc, headed by Hashim al-Atassi, which called for an independent Syria, and said that independence should be granted by diplomatic talks with France rather than armed resistance. A 67-seated constituent assembly was formed in 1928 to draw up Syria’s first republican constitution, and the national bloc leader, Hashim al-Atassi became speaker of the constituent assembly. The assembly approved a constitution in 1930, and the French high commissioner refused articles that gave the Syrian government power more than the French authorities. The high commissioner adapted the “116 article”, which gave the French authorities a huge power. At the same time the constitutions of Jabal el Druze, the Alawite state, and Alexanderetta where adapted. In 1932 the Syrian republic was declared, and a Parliament was formed under the name of the chamber of deputies, with Subhi Barrakat as the speaker of the Parliament. Muhammad Abid became the president of Syria, and appointed the pro- French Politician Haqqi al-Azm as Prime Minister. Abid appointed a new Prime Minister in 1934, Taj al-Din al-Hasani, who named a pro- French cabinet. Members of the national bloc and Many Syrian nationalists stood against Abid’s regime, and they called for a 60 days strike in February 1936. France, in defeat called the national bloc leaders in March, including Hashim al-Atassi, to negotiate a treaty with the French leaders in Paris to provide a gradual and substantial Syrian independence. They signed what is known as the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence in September, and came back to Syria in the same month. The treaty provided the unity of Syria: Jabal al- Druze and the Alawi state were joined with the Syrian republic. It also provided more authorities to President and Parliament. And the treaty gives Syria gradual independence over 25 years, when Syria would get full independence. During the previous months, 'Ata Bay al-Ayyubi, replaced Haqqi al- Azm as Prime Minister; declared the end of 60 days strike, dissolved al- Hassani pro French cabinet, and appointed a coalition counsel of ministers (cabinet) Including pro French movements and national movements. A new parliament was elected in 1936, and Hashim al-Atassi was elected a president. France started to develop Syria by building schools, roads, and hospitals. In 1939 the French government annulled and refused the Franco-Syrian treaty of independence. Jabal al Druze and the Alawi state were separated from Syria again. Presidential and Parliamentary authorities were abolished. Hashim al-Atassi resigned from presidency. France ceded to turkey the state of Alexandretta (sanjak Iskenderoun) in 1939.
The French dissolved Parliament in 1939 due to the outbreak of World War II. As the chairman of the high commissioners, Bahij al-Khatib headed the state and government.
After the surrender of France to Germany in 1940, Syria came under the control of the Vichy government. British and Free French forces invaded Syria in 1941. Later in the same year Free French authorities asked Khatib to resign. General Charles de Gaulle visited Syria in October 1941, and asked Hashim al-Atassi to resume his duty as president, but Atassi refused to do so. De Gaulle also asked Taj al-din al-Hassani to rule as president without Parliament until elections we be held after the end of World War II, al-Hassani accepted this job. In January, 17, 1943 Taj al-din al-Hassani died in office, a new government was formed in the same year, and a new constitution was promulgated. With the elections in 1943, a new Parliament was formed. Shukri al-Quwatli, a Syrian nationalist, one of the leaders of the 1925 to 1927 uprising against the French, and a member of the national bloc, was elected a president of the Syrian republic. The 1943 constitution declared Syrian republic the official name, declared the Parliamentary system, and provided the freedom of faith and beliefs. The constitution also provided a 120 seated chamber of deputies, which represented the Parliamentary and legislative branch. It also provided a president who serves a 5 year term, and cannot be reelected until he serves the whole term, who represents the executive branch along with Prime Minister and cabinet.
In 1944 French and Syrian leaders signed an independence treaty and Jabal Druze and the Alwai state were back to the Syrian republic, however, Free French troops surrounded Damascus in 1945, bombed it, just after twenty years from the first raid. As a result, Parliament building and Damascus citadel were destroyed, also many civilian neighborhoods were destroyed with more than 2000 civilian died.
In 1946 the independence treaty of 1944 was recognized, Free French troops and British troops left Syria, with the last leaving on April 15, 1946. Independence was declared on April 17, making this day a national holiday which is commemorated each year as the Jalaa Day (Independence Day).